Delhi: 12th to 15th Century

• Introduction

  • Delhi became an important capital in the 12th century.
  • First capital of a kingdom under the Tomara Rajputs and Chahamanas (Prithviraj Chauhan).
  • Transformation into a vast empire under the Delhi Sultans.
  • Construction of fortified cities (e.g., Dehli-i Kuhna, Siri, Jahanpanah).

• Finding Out About the Delhi Sultans

  • Inscriptions and coins.
  • Architecture (monuments, mosques).
  • Tawarikh (Histories written in Persian by learned authors, secretaries, administrators).
    • Authors' perspective: Lived in cities, advised rulers, praised them, and emphasized an ideal social order based on birthright and gender distinctions.
  • Fakhr-i Mudabbir: 13th-century chronicler who wrote about the requirements of a just ruler.

• From Garrison Town to Empire: The Expansion of the Delhi Sultanate

  • Initial Phase (13th Century): Control restricted to heavily fortified garrison towns (interior hinterlands poorly controlled).
  • Expansion Phase (Under Ghiyasuddin Balban, Alauddin Khalji, and Muhammad Tughluq):
    • Internal Frontier: Consolidating the hinterland (forests cleared in Ganga-Yamuna doab, hunter-gatherers expelled, agricultural lands given to peasants).
    • External Frontier: Military expeditions into southern India (begun under Alauddin Khalji, concluded under Muhammad Tughluq).
  • Key Architecture: Quwwat-al-Islam mosque and minaret, Jami Masjid (places of worship and political power symbols).

• Administration and Consolidation under the Khaljis and Tughluqs

  • Need for reliable governors and administrators.
  • Bandagan: Special slaves purchased for military service by early Sultans (loyal, trusted, raised to high political positions).
  • Iqta System:
    • Iqtadars / Muqtis: Holders of territorial assignments called iqtas.
    • Duties: Lead military campaigns and maintain law and order.
    • Revenue collection: Salaries paid to soldiers from revenues collected; checked by accountants appointed by the state.
  • Central Control Measures:
    • Accountants to check revenue collected by muqtis.
    • Salaries of soldiers strictly regulated.
    • Measurement and control of land revenue.

• The Sultanate in the 15th and 16th Centuries

  • Tughluq, Sayyid, and Lodi Dynasties: Ruled Delhi and Agra until 1526.
  • Jaunpur, Bengal, Malwa, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and South India: Independent regional states emerged with powerful rulers and prosperous capitals.
  • New Ruling Groups: Afghans and Rajputs.
  • Sher Shah Suri (1540–1545):
    • Started career as manager of a small territory, eventually challenged and defeated the Mughal emperor Humayun.
    • Captured Delhi and started the Sur Dynasty.
    • Administration modeled on Alauddin Khalji, later used by Akbar.