In the Earliest Cities

• The Story of Harappa

  • Discovery
    • Found by archaeologists 80 years ago.
    • First discovered site in the Indus Valley.
    • Regarded as the oldest city in the region.
  • Significance
    • Many other cities followed.
    • Known as Harappan cities.
    • Flourished about 4700 years ago.

• Architecture and City Design

  • City Layout
    • Divided into two or more parts.
    • Citadel (West): Higher, smaller, likely for rulers.
    • Lower Town (East): Larger, lower area for common people.
    • Bricks laid in interlocking pattern (strong walls).
  • Special Buildings
    • Great Bath in Mohenjodaro.
      • Lined with bricks, coated with tar.
      • Steps leading down, rooms around it.
      • Used for special ritual baths.
    • Fire altars found at Kalibangan and Lothal (for sacrifices).
    • Elaborate storehouses for grain.

• Drainage and Streets

  • Drainage System
    • Covered, straight drains.
    • Gentle slope for water flow.
    • Drains connected to house drains.
    • Inspection holes provided for cleaning.
  • Town Planning
    • Houses built along streets.
    • Streets laid out in a grid pattern.
    • Houses had one or two storeys.
    • Separate bathing areas; wells for water supply.

• Life in the City

  • Rulers and Scribes
    • Rulers: Planned constructions, sent people far to get materials.
    • Scribes: People who knew how to write, helped prepare seals.
    • Craft persons: Made various things, lived in the city or nearby.
  • Material Culture
    • Artifacts made of stone, shell, and metal.
    • Copper and Bronze: Used for tools, weapons, ornaments, vessels.
    • Gold and Silver: Used for ornaments and vessels.
    • Striking finds: Beads, weights, and blades.
  • Art and Craft
    • Seals: Made of stone, usually rectangular with animal figures.
    • Terracotta toys: Loved by children (carts, animals).
    • Stone statue of a priest-king found in Mohenjodaro.

• Food and Agriculture

  • Farmer and Herder Role
    • Supplied food to city craft persons and rulers.
    • Grew wheat, barley, pulses, peas, rice, sesame, linseed, mustard.
    • Use of the plough for turning soil.
  • Irrigation
    • Regions received less rainfall; irrigation was used.
    • Water stored and supplied to fields during dry months.
  • Animal Rearing
    • Rearing cattle, sheep, goats, and buffalo.
    • Collected fruits (ber), caught fish, and hunted wild animals.

• Closer Look: Gujarat Harappan Sites

  • Dholavira
    • Located in Khadir Beyt in the Rann of Kutch.
    • Fresh water and fertile soil.
    • Divided into three parts (unlike most others).
    • Massive stone walls with gateways.
    • Large open area for public ceremonies.
    • Harappan inscriptions carved in white stone.
  • Lothal
    • Stood beside a tributary of the Sabarmati in Gujarat.
    • Near areas where raw materials were easily available.
    • Important center for making objects out of stone, shell, and metal.
    • Had a storehouse (many seals found).
    • Dockyard: Boats came in from the sea and river channel.

• The Mystery of the End

  • Around 3900 years ago, a major change occurred.
  • People stopped living in many cities.
  • Writing, seals, and weights were no longer used.
  • Raw material imports reduced.
  • Possible Reasons:
    • Rivers dried up.
    • Deforestation and grazing ruined green cover.
    • Floods or river changes.
    • Ruling powers may have lost control.
  • People moved to newer, smaller settlements to the east and south.