Biomolecules

• Carbohydrates
  • Introduction
    • Polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones
    • General formula: $C_x(H_2O)_y$
  • Classification
    • Monosaccharides
      • Cannot be hydrolyzed further
      • Examples: Glucose, Fructose
    • Oligosaccharides
      • Yield 2-10 monosaccharide units
      • Examples: Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose
    • Polysaccharides
      • Yield large number of monosaccharide units
      • Examples: Starch, Cellulose, Glycogen
  • Structure of Glucose
    • Open chain structure
    • Cyclic structures (Pyranose ring)
    • Anomers ($\alpha$-D-glucose and $\beta$-D-glucose)
  • Reducing and Non-reducing Sugars
    • Reducing: Free aldehyde/ketone group (e.g., Glucose)
    • Non-reducing: No free group (e.g., Sucrose)
• Proteins
  • Introduction
    • Polymers of $\alpha$-amino acids
    • Linked by peptide bonds
  • Amino Acids
    • Structure: Amino group, Carboxyl group, R-group
    • Classification: Essential and Non-essential
    • Zwitter ion form
  • Structures of Proteins
    • Primary structure: Sequence of amino acids
    • Secondary structure: $\alpha$-helix and $\beta$-pleated sheet
    • Tertiary structure: 3D folding (Fibrous and Globular)
    • Quaternary structure: Subunit organization
  • Denaturation of Proteins
    • Loss of biological activity
    • Caused by heat, pH change (e.g., coagulation of egg white)
• Enzymes
  • Introduction
    • Biocatalysts of biochemical reactions
    • Mostly globular proteins
  • Characteristics
    • Highly specific
    • High efficiency
  • Mechanism
    • Lock and key model / Induced fit model
• Vitamins
  • Introduction
    • Organic compounds required in small amounts
  • Classification
    • Fat-soluble vitamins: Vitamins A, D, E, K
    • Water-soluble vitamins: Vitamins B-group, Vitamin C
  • Deficiency Diseases
    • Night blindness (Vit A)
    • Beriberi (Vit $B_1$)
    • Scurvy (Vit C)
    • Rickets (Vit D)
• Nucleic Acids
  • Introduction
    • Biomolecules responsible for heredity
    • Polymers of nucleotides
  • Components of Nucleotides
    • Nitrogenous bases (Purines: Adenine, Guanine; Pyrimidines: Cytosine, Thymine, Uracil)
    • Pentose Sugar (Ribose or 2-Deoxyribose)
    • Phosphoric acid group
  • Types of Nucleic Acids
    • DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
      • Double helix structure
      • Contains Thymine, lacks Uracil
    • RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)
      • Single-stranded structure
      • Contains Uracil, lacks Thymine
      • Types: mRNA, tRNA, rRNA