Class 9 - Social Science (Political Science)

Chapter: Working of Institutions

Government Order (Office Memorandum): A communication issued by an appropriate authority of the Government of India on August 13, 1990, announcing the decision to reserve 27% of vacancies in civil posts and services under the Government of India for Socially and Educationally Backward Classes (SEBC).
SEBC (Socially and Educationally Backward Classes): Another name for people belonging to castes considered backward by the government.
Key Actors Involved in the Decision:
- President: Head of the State and the highest formal authority in the country.
- Prime Minister: Head of the government and takes most of the decisions in the Cabinet meetings.
- Parliament: Consists of the President and two Houses (Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha). The decision was debated here through questions raised by MPs.

A government needs to perform various activities to ensure security, education, health, and welfare for its citizens.
Institutions ensure smooth functioning:
- Decision-making: Laws and policies are made.
- Implementation: Policies are executed.
- Dispute Resolution: Conflicts regarding policies or laws are resolved (e.g., the Supreme Court settled the Mandal Commission dispute).
Democracy works best when these institutions perform their tasks with checks and balances.

Parliament: The supreme law-making authority in India.
Components of Parliament:
1. President of India
2. Lok Sabha (House of the People / Lower House): Directly elected by the people.
3. Rajya Sabha (Council of States / Upper House): Elected indirectly; represents the states.
Why do we need a Parliament?
1. Final authority for making laws.
2. Exercises control over the government (executives are answerable to Parliament).
3. Controls all the money that governments have.
4. The highest forum of discussion and debate on public issues.

Feature	Lok Sabha (Lower House)	Rajya Sabha (Upper House)
Members	Directly elected by citizens.	Indirectly elected.
Term	Normally 5 years (can be dissolved earlier).	Permanent body (1/3rd members retire every 2 years).
Financial Powers	Money Bills can only originate and pass here.	Has very limited power over Money Bills (can delay for 14 days).
Ultimate Power	In case of differences with Rajya Sabha, the view of Lok Sabha prevails in a joint sitting due to larger numbers.	Acts as the representative of the states of India.

Executive: The body of persons that takes key decisions and implements laws.
Types of Executives:
1. Political Executive:
  - Elected by the people for a specific period (e.g., Prime Minister, Ministers).
  - Take all the final policy decisions.
2. Permanent Executive (Civil Services):
  - Appointed on a long-term basis (e.g., IAS, IPS, government officials).
  - Remain in office even when the government changes; assist political executives in day-to-day administration.

Prime Minister (PM): The most important political institution in the country. Appointed by the President.
Powers of the Prime Minister:
- Head of the government.
- Chairs cabinet meetings.
- Distributes and redistributes work to the ministers.
- Has the power to dismiss ministers.
- If the PM resigns, the entire ministry quits.
Council of Ministers: Parliamentary body that includes all ministers. Usually has 60 to 80 ministers of different ranks:
1. Cabinet Ministers: Top-level leaders in charge of major ministries.
2. Ministers of State with independent charge: In charge of smaller ministries.
3. Ministers of State: Assist cabinet ministers.

Role: Head of State. Represents the entire nation, but does not exercise direct political power.
Election: Indirectly elected by Members of Parliament (MPs) and Members of Legislative Assemblies (MLAs).
Key Powers:
- All major government activities take place in the name of the President.
- Appoints the Prime Minister, Council of Ministers, Judges of Supreme/High Courts, and Governors.
- Every bill passed by Parliament needs the President's signature to become a law.
- Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Armed Forces.
- Exercises mercy powers (pardoning sentences).

Judiciary: An independent body consisting of all courts at different levels in a country.
Structure of Indian Judiciary (Integrated Judiciary):
1. Supreme Court: Highest court of India (located in New Delhi). Decisions are binding on all other courts.
2. High Courts: Highest courts at the state level.
3. District Courts: Courts at the district level.
Key Powers:
- Dispute Resolution: Resolves disputes between citizens, citizens and government, states, and center-state.
- Guardian of the Constitution: Can declare any law invalid if it violates the Constitution (Judicial Review).
- PIL (Public Interest Litigation): Any citizen can approach courts if public interest is hurt by government action.
Independence of Judiciary: Means that it is not under the control of the legislature or executive. Judges are appointed with fixed terms and cannot be easily removed, ensuring fair justice.