Quick Revision Notes: Class 7 Social Science

Chapter: New Kings and Kingdoms (नए राजा और उनके राज्य)

Time Period: By the 7th century, major-warlords or Samantas (सामंत) existed in different regions of the Indian subcontinent.
Rise to Power: As kings grew more powerful and wealthy, these subordinates or samantas declared themselves to be Maha-samantas or Maha-mandaleshvara (the great lord of a region/circle). Sometimes they asserted their independence from their overlords.
Hiranya-garbha Ritual: Meaning "the golden womb," this ritual was performed by warlords (like Dantidurga) with the help of Brahmanas to be reborn as a Kshatriya, even if they were not one by birth, to legitimize their rule.

Revenue Collection: Resources were obtained from producers (peasants, cattle-keepers, artisans) who were often forced to part with a portion of their produce. Rent was also collected from traders.
Types of Taxes: Inscriptions of the Cholas in Tamil Nadu mention more than 40 terms for different kinds of taxes.
- Vetti: A tax taken not in cash, but in the form of forced labor.
- Kadamamai: Land revenue.
Role of Revenue: These resources were used to finance the king’s establishment, construct temples and forts, and fight wars.

Prasastis (प्रशस्ति): Composed by learned Brahmanas, these contained details that may not be literally true (e.g., how rulers depicted themselves as valiant, victorious warriors).
Nagabhatta’s Exploits: A prasasti written in Sanskrit and found in Gwalior describes the victories of Nagabhatta, a Pratihara king.
Land Grants: Kings often rewarded Brahmanas by grants of land. These were recorded on copper plates, which were given to those who received the land.

Kanauj: For centuries, rulers belonging to the Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta, and Pala dynasties fought for control over Kanauj (in the Ganga valley).
Tripartite Struggle (त्रिपक्षीय संघर्ष): Because there were three "parties" involved in this long-drawn conflict, historians often describe it as the "tripartite struggle."
Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni (Afghanistan): Ruled from 997 to 1030 and raided the subcontinent almost every year to target wealthy temples, including the famous Somnath temple in Gujarat. He entrusted scholar Al-Biruni to write an account of the subcontinent (Kitab al-Hind).
Chahamanas (later known as Chauhans): Ruled over the region around Delhi and Ajmer. Their best-known ruler was Prithviraj III (1168–1192), who defeated an Afghan ruler named Sultan Muhammad Ghori in 1191, but lost to him in 1192.

Rise to Power: A minor chiefly family known as the Muttaraiyar held power in the Kaveri delta. Vijayalaya, belonging to the ancient chiefly family of the Cholas from Uraiyur, captured the delta from the Muttaraiyar in the middle of the 9th century and built the town of Thanjavur.
Splendid Temples and Sculpture:
- Rajaraja I and Rajendra I built magnificent temples.
- The Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram temples, built by them, are architectural and sculptural marvels.
- Chola bronze images are considered among the finest in the world.
Agriculture and Irrigation:
- The river Kaveri branches off into the Bay of Bengal before emptying into it, providing necessary water for agriculture.
- Embankments were built to prevent flooding, and canals were constructed to carry water to fields.
Administration of the Empire:
- Ur: Settlements of peasants.
- Nadusa: Groups of villages forming larger units known as nadu.
- Vellanvagai: Land of non-Brahmana peasant proprietors.
- Brahmadeya: Land gifted to Brahmanas.
- Sabha: An assembly of prominent Brahmana landholders.